“Adjudication Order = Notice of Demand” – Supreme Court Clarifies Commencement of Interest under Section 28A SEBI Act

1. Introduction

In Jaykishor Chaturvedi v. Securities and Exchange Board of India (2025 INSC 846) the Supreme Court of India resolved a long-standing practical question in securities law enforcement: When does statutory interest on an unpaid SEBI penalty begin to run? By holding that the original adjudication order itself constitutes the “notice of demand” for the purposes of Section 28A of the SEBI Act read with Section 220 of the Income-tax Act, 1961, the Court declared that interest starts immediately after the compliance period fixed in the adjudication order expires. The decision rejected the taxpayer-style argument that interest commences only after a separate recovery demand is issued.

The case arose out of insider-trading violations by the promoter-directors of Brijlaxmi Leasing & Finance Ltd., their failure to pay penalties imposed in 2014, and SEBI’s 2022 recovery and attachment initiatives. The appellants challenged the substantial interest component (12 % p.a. for almost nine years). The Supreme Court unanimously dismissed the appeals, crafting a lucid survey of “legislation by reference vs. incorporation,” the compensatory nature of statutory interest, and the inter-play between the SEBI Act and Income-tax Act.

2. Summary of the Judgment

The Court affirmed SEBI’s power to levy interest on unpaid penalties under Section 28A.
The adjudication orders of 28-08-2014, which gave the defaulters 45 days to pay, are themselves enforceable demand notices; no additional demand under Section 156 ITA is required.
Interest therefore accrued ex lege from the day following expiry of the 45-day window—i.e. from October 2014—not from the demand notices dated 13-05-2022.
Explanation 4 (inserted 21-02-2019) to Section 28A is merely clarificatory and did not create a new liability; hence arguments about “retrospective” application fail.
Statutory interest is compensatory, not penal; it indemnifies the public exchequer for deprivation of funds.
The appeals were dismissed; appellants were directed to pay the computed interest within 15 days.

3. Detailed Analysis

3.1 Precedents Cited

Dushyant N. Dalal v. SEBI (2017) 9 SCC 660 – First major ruling upholding SEBI’s power to collect interest via Section 28A and Section 220 ITA; recognised equity-based interest even for periods preceding Section 28A. The present judgment relies on, but also extends, Dalal by specifying the trigger date.
Sedco Forex International (2005) 12 SCC 717; Shyam Sundar (2001) 8 SCC 24; Keshavlal Shah (1968) 3 SCR 623 – cited by appellants for the proposition that substantive amendments cannot operate retrospectively. The Court distinguished these because Explanation 4 is merely declaratory.
Shiv Kumar Sharma (2007) 8 SCC 600 and Shamsu Suhara Beevi (2004) 8 SCC 569 – equity cannot override statute. Court used these to underscore that Section 28A is itself substantive.
Classical incorporation/reference cases: Nathella Sampathu Chetty (1962 SC), Ujagar Prints (1989 SC), Girnar Traders (2011 SC). The Court employed these to explain why Section 156 ITA is not incorporated into the SEBI Act.
Tax interest jurisprudence: Pratibha Processors (1996) 11 SCC 101; Bhai Jaspal Singh (2011) 1 SCC 39 – laid down compensatory rationale.

3.2 Legal Reasoning

Architecture of Chapter VI-A (Penalties) and Section 28A
• Penalties are imposed by an Adjudicating Officer under Section 15-I. • Section 28A (inserted 2014, substantive) provides the recovery mechanism and imports Sections 220–227 ITA with “necessary modifications.” • Because Section 156 ITA is not incorporated, the adjudication order itself serves as the “notice of demand.”
Incorporation vs. Reference
The judgment spends considerable space teaching the difference: incorporation freezes the imported text as on the cut-off date; reference keeps it dynamic. Section 28A is a legislation by incorporation for Sections 220–227 but not for Section 156, which is absent. Thus the 30-day period in Section 220 is counted from the “demand” contained in the adjudication order.
Trigger date for interest
• Adjudication orders dated 28-08-2014 ordered payment within 45 days. • Upon lapse, defaulters became “deemed defaulters” under Section 220(4) ITA, so interest at 1 % per month (12 % p.a.) started automatically. • SEBI’s 2022 recovery notice is only a reminder, not the originating demand.
Explanation 4 (2019) – clarificatory
The Explanation states interest shall commence “from the date the amount became payable.” The Court held this merely clarifies what was already implicit; hence no impermissible retrospectivity.
Nature of Interest
Interest is compensatory for delayed payment, not a further penalty. It safeguards the Consolidated Fund to which penalty proceeds are credited (Section 15-JA SEBI Act).

3.3 Impact of the Decision

Enforcement Efficiency – SEBI and other regulators need not issue duplicate demand notices merely to start the interest clock. The adjudication order’s compliance clause suffices.
Investor Protection & Deterrence – Immediate accrual of interest creates a stronger deterrent against non-payment and quickens fund flow to the Consolidated Fund.
Harmonisation with Tax Recovery – The judgment harmonises securities-law recovery with income-tax concepts, yet carefully fences off Section 156 ITA from automatic application.
Precedential Clarity – Removes ambiguity that had led to contradictory SAT orders on “from-when” interest. Future litigants will find it difficult to resist interest accrual post-adjudication.
Possible Legislative Follow-ups – Parliament may codify the principle by expressly declaring the adjudication order as a demand notice to forestall further controversy.

4. Complex Concepts Simplified

Adjudication Order: The written decision of a SEBI Adjudicating Officer imposing a monetary penalty and often specifying a deadline for payment.
Notice of Demand (Tax Law): Under Section 156 ITA, a formal demand sent to an assessee requiring payment within 30 days. In SEBI context, the Supreme Court now treats the adjudication order itself as an equivalent.
Section 28A SEBI Act: Provision empowering SEBI to recover unpaid penalties, disgorgement, fees, etc., by following ITA recovery machinery and levy of interest.
Legislation by Incorporation vs. Reference: Incorporation lifts and freezes specific provisions of one statute into another; reference merely points to another statute dynamically.
Compensatory Interest: Interest awarded to offset the financial loss to the creditor (here, the State) owing to late payment; distinct from penal fines.

5. Conclusion

The Supreme Court’s 2025 ruling decisively cements the principle that the clock for statutory interest on unpaid SEBI penalties starts the moment the compliance period in the adjudication order ends. By treating the order itself as the “notice of demand,” the judgment closes a loophole that enabled defaulters to postpone interest accrual merely by awaiting a separate recovery certificate. The Court’s blend of doctrinal exposition on incorporation, its affirmation of compensatory interest, and its practical orientation toward regulatory efficiency make the decision a foundational precedent for Indian securities-law enforcement. Stakeholders—listed companies, their promoters/directors, compliance officers, and legal practitioners—must now factor in immediate interest exposure when considering whether to comply or litigate SEBI penalty orders.