INT'L WOMEN'S DAY V. CITY OF SAN ANTONIO

ams, or `school spirit.'" Id. at 509. Like the 2008 ordinance, the school policy in Palmer was a generally applicable policy that, due to certain exemptions, appeared on its face to treat protected speech differently on the basis of its content. Nevertheless, we concluded that "`the principal inquiry in determining content-neutrality, in speech cases generally and in time, place, or manner cases in particular, is whether the government has adopted a regulation of speech because of disagreement with the message it conveys.'" Id. at 510 (quoting Ward v. Rock Against Racism, 491 U.S. 781, 791, 109 S.Ct. 2746, 105 L.Ed.2d 661 (1989)). Therefore, since the school district "was in no way attempting to suppress any student's expression through its dress code," we found that the code was content-neutral. Id. Similarly, in this case, San Antonio's provision of financial support for certain processions does not demonstrate that it bears any animus against the view-points expressed by the plaintiffs in the International Women's Day Parade or other marches. San Antonio is not singling out disfavored viewpoints for sanction; instead, it is singling out a limited number of favored messages for special treatment. Under Palmer, this is permissible.

Palmer concerned the constitutionality of a school's dress code, a subject somewhat different than the one we confront today. This difference aside, our decision in Palmer rested on Ward, where the Supreme Court considered the permissibility of New York City's regulation of speech in a public forum. 491 U.S. at 791, 109 S.Ct. 2746. Thus, Palmer is relevant for this case.

We recognize that there is some Supreme Court precedent that arguably supports the plaintiffs' arguments concerning discrimination. For example, the Supreme Court has sometimes found statutes that grant preferential treatment to favored speakers, while equally burdening other speakers, to be content-based. See Carey v. Brown, 447 U.S. 455, 460-61, 100 S.Ct. 2286, 65 L.Ed.2d 263 (1980) (striking down law that restricted all picketing in certain area, except labor-related picketing); Police Dep't v. Mosley, 408 U.S. 92, 95, 92 S.Ct. 2286, 33 L.Ed.2d 212 (1972) (same) However, more recently, the Supreme Court has suggested that when municipalities grant waivers of permit requirements to certain speakers, our focus should be on whether the pattern of waivers reflects a desire to suppress disfavored viewpoints. Furthermore, in the Supreme Court's cases discussing government subsidization of private speech, the Court has also focused on whether the government is using its subsidies as a means of singling out disfavored viewpoints for penalty. In this context, we do not believe San Antonio is engaging in viewpoint discrimination by providing a benefit to a limited number of speakers.

Specifically, in Thomas v. Chicago Park District, the Court stated that "[g]ranting waivers to favored speakers (or, more precisely, denying them to disfavored speakers) would . . . be unconstitutional." 534 U.S. at 325, 122 S.Ct. 775 (emphasis added). San Antonio does not treat the plaintiffs as disfavored speakers by providing a benefit to a select number of processions.

See Ysursa v. Pocatello Educ. Ass'n, ___;U.S., 129___ S.Ct. 1093, 1098, 172 L.Ed.2d 770 (2009) (upholding state's ban on using payroll deductions for political purposes because prohibition was not "`aimed at the suppression of dangerous ideas'" (quoting Regan, 461 U.S. at 548, 103 S.Ct. 1997) (internal brackets removed)); Velazquez, 531 U.S. at 547, 121 S.Ct. 1043 (striking down program subsidizing legal services that had effect of suppressing "ideas thought inimical to the Government's own interest"); Finley, 524 U.S. at 587, 118 S.Ct. 2168 (upholding government's selective subsidization of art, but leaving door open for as-applied challenge if government "leverage[d] its power to award subsidies . . . into a penalty on disfavored viewpoints"); Rosenberger, 515 U.S. at 822-23, 115 S.Ct. 2510 (striking down university's singling out of religious student publications for non-subsidization, despite commitment to fund broad range of other student publications); Regan, 461 U.S. at 548, 103 S.Ct. 1997 (upholding differential government subsidization of lobbying because government had not "discriminated invidiously in its subsidies in such a way as to `aim at the suppression of dangerous ideas'" (quoting Cammarano, 358 U.S. at 513, 79 S.Ct. 524)).

One might object to our reliance on the Supreme Court's subsidization case law in these circumstances, where San Antonio is imposing a financial burden on speakers attempting to access a public forum. To the best of our knowledge, none of the Supreme Court's cases concerning subsidization have directly involved public fora. Also, the Court has at times justified its support for selective subsidization by explaining that "`although government may not place obstacles in the path of a person's exercise of freedom of speech, it need not remove those not of its own creation.'" Regan, 461 U.S. at 549-50, 103 S.Ct. 1997 (quoting Harris v. McRae, 448 U.S. 297, 316, 100 S.Ct. 2671, 65 L.Ed.2d 784 (1980) (internal brackets and ellipsis omitted)). In this case, San Antonio's traffic control fees are an "obstacle" that the plaintiffs must surpass before exercising their speech rights; thus, one might argue that the City may not intervene to selectively subsidize payment of these fees for certain speakers.

However, in our view, public fora need not be a subsidy-free zone. When a municipality imposes reasonable user fees controlling access to public fora, it does not lose its ability to provide financial support for community events held in its public fora. For example, if San Antonio were to provide a block grant to Fiesta San Antonio in recognition of its positive effect on San Antonio's economy, and Fiesta's organizers were to use that grant to pay fees due under the 2008 ordinance, surely this would be an acceptable use of public funds. Simply put, we will not "engage in hair-splitting by finding a constitutional difference between waiving a fee and paying it out of the City treasury." See Sullivan v. City of Augusta, 406 F.Supp.2d 92, 113 (D.Me. 2005), aff'd in pertinent part, 511 F.3d 16, 32 n. 7 (1st Cir. 2007). As such, we join with the First and Sixth Circuits, which have also endorsed municipal subsidization of events held on public streets.

See Sullivan, 511 F.3d at 32 n. 7; aff'g in pertinent part 406 F.Supp.2d at 113 (holding that city had "not maintained or administered [its] Parade Ordinance to disfavor or suppress one viewpoint in favor of another" by financially supporting annual police association's parade); Stonewall Union v. City of Columes, 931 F.2d 1130, 1138 (6th Cir. 1991) (holding that city may differentially sponsor certain parades, as "the First Amendment guarantee of freedom of speech does not mean that the government must provide funds for or sponsor all speech equally").

Of course, even if San Antonio may subsidize events held on its streets, it still may not engage in viewpoint discrimination in its provision of subsidies. Velazquez, 531 U.S. at 542, 121 S.Ct. 1043. Thus, while we affirm San Antonio's waiver of fees for a limited number of events, we stress that the City's power in this area is not limitless. As noted above, there is disturbing evidence in the record concerning the City's practices under the 1988 ordinance, but these are not the facts before us on this facial challenge to the 2008 ordinance.

V.

The plaintiffs next argue that the 2008 ordinance grants unconstitutionally excessive discretion to San Antonio's City Council and the SAPD to waive and assess traffic control fees. First, we address whether the City Council retains unconstitutional discretion to waive fees, and then we review whether the 2008 ordinance and Procedure 214 provide sufficient guidance to the SAPD in assessing fees. We find that the Council does not retain unconstitutional discretion and that the discretion of the SAPD is sufficiently cabined.

A.

The plaintiffs argue that the 2008 ordinance impermissibly vests discretion in the City Council to waive traffic control fees, without also providing standards to guide the Council's exercise of that discretion. They rely primarily on the Supreme Court's decision in Shuttlesworth v. City of Birmingham, 394 U.S. 147, 89 S.Ct. 935, 22 L.Ed.2d 162 (1969), and the Ninth Circuit's recent decision in Long Beach Area Peace Network v. City of Long Beach, 574 F.3d 1011 (9th Cir. 2009). We find that the Council does not have unconstitutional discretion to waive fees under the 2008 ordinance. Although the City Council retains permissible legislative discretion to grant new reoccurring fee waivers, it has not reserved the right to meddle in the permit process on an application-by-application basis under the 2008 ordinance.

In Shuttlesworth, the Supreme Court considered the constitutionality of a parade ordinance that granted considerable power to a city commission — an entity akin to a city council — to grant or deny parade permits. Specifically, the ordinance provided that the commission would "grant a written permit" for a parade, "unless in its judgment the public welfare, peace, safety, health, decency, good order, morals or convenience require[d] that [the permit] be refused." Id. at 149-50, 89 S.Ct. 935. The Supreme Court struck the ordinance down for granting "virtually unbridled and absolute power" to the city commission to prohibit parades. Id. at 150. The Court explained that the ordinance operated as a prior restraint, making "the peaceful enjoyment of freedoms which the Constitution guarantees contingent upon the uncontrolled will of an official," who could use his or her discretion to engage in censorship. Id. at 151 (quoting Staub v. City of Baxley, 355 U.S. 313, 322, 78 S.Ct. 277, 2 L.Ed.2d 302 (1958)).

More recently, in Long Beach, the Ninth Circuit struck down an ordinance that imposed permit and service fees on march organizers but allowed a city council to waive them. 574 F.3d at 1042. Under the ordinance, march organizers could write to the city council after their march and request a waiver of applicable fees. Id. at 1017-18. Relying on Shuttlesworth, the Ninth Circuit held that "in the First Amendment context, where a legislative body has enacted a permitting scheme for expressive conduct but has reserved some decisionmaking authority for itself under that scheme, that reserved authority is vulnerable to challenge on grounds of un-bridled discretion." Id. at 1042. Since the defendant city had not pointed to any "provision of the Ordinance, or to any implementing regulation, that guide[d] the City Council's decision whether to fund or waive fees and charges," the court struck down the ordinance. Id. at 1043.

The plaintiffs argue that, as in Long Beach, San Antonio's City Council retains discretion to waive traffic control fees for particular events, unconstrained by any guidelines. The 2008 ordinance does not explicitly grant authority to the City Council to waive fees for any events beyond the three listed in section 19-636(d). Nevertheless, the plaintiffs argue that the City Council retains power under the procession ordinance to waive fees for additional groups. There are several indications in the record that the City Council does retain such authority. First, as noted above, when the Council passed the present ordinance, it did so with the understanding that its preexisting fee waivers for Fiesta San Antonio and the Cesar Chavez Parade would continue under the new ordinance.Thus, San Antonio's present procession ordinance does not limit fee waivers to events expressly listed in the ordinance. Second, during the preliminary injunction hearings in this case, counsel for San Antonio represented to the district court that under the current procession ordinance, "there is nothing that would preclude [groups] from coming forward and seeking Council support and seeking an ordinance, if they have a specific event, and seeking to see if they would garner" support for a fee waiver from the Council.

As already noted, before enacting the present ordinance, the Council reviewed a presentation that explained that "[o]ther ordinances already provide that the city will cover the costs associated with . . . Fiesta Parades and related events [and the] Cesar Chavez March."

We believe that the fee waivers condemned by the Ninth Circuit in Long Beach are distinguishable from those under consideration on this facial challenge. In Long Beach, although the Ninth Circuit held that city councils may not exercise unguided discretion in making specific permit decisions, the court also noted that city councils may still exercise "the general discretion . . . to enact (or not enact) laws." Id. at 1042. In our view, the waivers under consideration in this case more closely resemble an exercise of the City Council's legislative authority than a specific licensing decision. San Antonio grants prospective, reoccurring fee exemptions for annual events, and the 2008 ordinance reserves no explicit authority for the City Council to waive fees on an application-by-application basis. In contrast, in Long Beach the challenged ordinance specifically reserved waiver power for the city council, allowing event organizers to write to the council, requesting one-time waivers for particular events. Id. at 1017-18, 1042. Thus, in this case, San Antonio's City Council has not retained a role for itself in the permit application process; it has instead prospectively exempted certain annual events from paying fees under its permit scheme. Although the City Council may in the future consider creating additional reoccurring exemptions for other events, this would be a permissible exercise of the Council's legislative authority, as long as the Council does not exempt so many events to create concerns about viewpoint discrimination, as discussed above. However, if the City Council in the future begins waiving fees for procession organizers on an ad hoc, application-by-application basis under the 2008 ordinance, we can assess this in an as-applied challenge.

The City Council does retain authority to hear appeals from denials of permits by the SAPD. See Ch. 19, art. XVII, § 19-635. However, these appeals do not concern any refusals by the SAPD to waive fees, as the procession ordinance does not grant the SAPD authority to waive fees.

As previously noted, it appears that under the 1988 ordinance, Council members sometimes intervened with the SAPD to obtain fee waivers for particular events. For the 2007 and 2008 versions of the current ordinance, we have no evidence of similar practices. During the brief period when the SAPD assessed fees after the repeal of the 1988 ordinance, no fee waivers were granted, other than for the Martin Luther King March. Then, from February 2008 until March 2009, San Antonio was under an injunction that interfered with its ability to assess fees on procession organizers.

The plaintiffs might object that we are requiring them to wait for the City Council to employ its discretion to waive fees in an impermissible manner. It is true that "[f]acial attacks on the discretion granted a decision-maker are not dependent on the facts surrounding any particular permit decision." Forsyth County, 505 U.S. at 133 n. 10, 112 S.Ct. 2395. As such, when an ordinance clearly grants unguided discretion to an actor, a plaintiff can attack that ordinance without pointing to any particular impermissible exercises of discretion, as it is "the pervasive threat inherent in [discretion's] very existence that constitutes the danger to freedom of discussion." City of Lakewood v. Plain Dealer Publ'g Co., 486 U.S. 750, 770, 108 S.Ct. 2138, 100 L.Ed.2d 771 (1988). However, San Antonio cannot be sued simply because its City Council retains unconstrained legislative discretion. Such discretion is the very nature of legislative authority.

B.

The plaintiffs also contend that the 2008 ordinance and Procedure 214 do not sufficiently cabin the discretion of the SAPD in assessing traffic control and cleanup fees. The Supreme Court has held that "`a law subjecting the exercise of First Amendment freedoms to the prior restraint of a license' must contain `narrow, objective, and definite standards to guide . . . licensing authority.'" Forsyth County, 505 U.S. at 131, 112 S.Ct. 2395 (quoting Shuttlesworth, 394 U.S. at 150-51, 89 S.Ct. 935). In our view, the standards guiding the SAPD are constitutional, as they do not grant arbitrary power to assess fees, but rather provide the police with limited discretion to allocate necessary traffic control and cleanup resources.

Before proceeding with our analysis, we review the standards by which the SAPD calculates fees for procession organizers. As explained above, the 2008 ordinance establishes that "[e]ach permit holder is responsible for" the cost of "[cleaning up the procession route" and providing "traffic control personnel" and "traffic control devices for the procession route." Ch. 19, art. XVII, § 19-636(b). In determining "the number of peace officers and traffic control devices reasonably necessary to control traffic in the area of the requested procession," id. § 19-636(c), the procession ordinance directs the SAPD to consider:

(1) The route and the identification of roadways that cross through or feed into the street of the proposed route;

(2) The number of anticipated participants and vehicles in the event;

(3) Identification of other roadways, or public transportation and emergency vehicle routes that may be affected by the event;

(4) Length of the route and the identification of the number of intersections along the route that will require barricades or traffic control personnel;

(5) Whether intersections must be individually barricaded or whether officers can be assigned to move along with the event;

(6) The date and time of the event;

(7) Volume of vehicular and pedestrian traffic typical on and along the route for the time of day, day of the week and time of year for the proposed route.

Id. Once the SAPD determines the required number of personnel and barricades, it calculates fees on the basis of the City's collective bargaining agreement and the City's contract with a third party barricade vendor. Id.

Procedure 214 provides additional guidance for the implementation of the permit scheme. It supplies a list of factors to consider in determining the number of traffic control personnel and devices necessary for a procession, complementing the factors listed in the ordinance. It also lists five possible arrangements for providing traffic control. For the smallest processions, it recommends not stopping vehicular traffic at all, instead separating marchers from regular traffic with cars leading and following the procession. See Procedure No. 214 at 5, 12. For the largest processions, it recommends closing multiple lanes and blocking cross traffic along the procession route. See id. at 7-8, 11.

The procedure requires the SAPD to consider:

The proposed route including the size and type of roadway and the number of traffic lanes necessary to accommodate the procession; [t]he anticipated number of participants and vehicles in the procession; [t]he estimated number of traffic control personnel needed to staff traffic control points along the procession route and any necessary detour routes to ensure the safe, efficient and orderly flow of pedestrian and vehicular traffic affected by the procession; [t]he estimated number of barricades, traffic cones, barrels and traffic control signs necessary to comply with the Texas Manual of Uniform Traffic Control Devices to ensure the safety of the participants and motorists and to establish road and driveway closures and detour routes; [i]f other roadways or public transportation and emergency vehicle routes may be affected by the procession; [w]hether intersections must be individually barricaded or whether traffic control personnel can be assigned to move along with the procession; and [t]he volume of vehicular and pedestrian traffic typical on and along the route for the time of day, day of the week and time of year for the proposed route.

Procedure No. 214 at 4-5 (internal numbering removed).

The plaintiffs assert that these standards are riddled with lacunae, leaving the SAPD with excessive discretion in allocating resources for processions. The plaintiffs argue that the 2008 ordinance and Procedure 214 do not clearly direct the SAPD on how to apply the lists of resource allocation factors. They complain that when the SAPD determines the resources necessary for a procession, it must consider factors not explicitly listed in the 2008 ordinance or Procedure 214, such as how much time a procession will remain on the streets. They protest that the 2008 ordinance and Procedure 214 do not clearly establish when barricades are necessary for a procession. They argue that the 2008 ordinance does not explain how cleanup costs should be assessed. They complain that the possible traffic control arrangements listed in Procedure 214 do not provide sufficient guidance to the SAPD, as processions with similar numbers of marchers could fit into multiple categories. Ultimately, attacks like these must fail, for the plaintiffs overestimate the precision demanded by the Constitution in these circumstances. While "`narrow, objective, and definite standards'" must guide an official's exercise of discretion, Forsyth County, 505 U.S. at 131, 112 S.Ct. 2395 (quoting Shuttlesworth, 394 U.S. at 150-51, 89 S.Ct. 935), standards are not impermissible simply because they leave officials with some discretion. A review of relevant case law confirms this.

To be sure, when ordinances grant officials authority to assess fees on speech, some forms of discretion are constitutionally impermissible. Generally, ordinances that grant officials discretion to impose or waive fees at will are unconstitutional. For example, in Forsyth County, the Supreme Court struck down an ordinance interpreted to allow county officials freedom to adjust fees for event organizers, irrespective of the actual "administrative and security expenses" borne by the county. Id. at 131 n. 9. Also problematic are ordinances that provide vague criteria for assessing fees, unanchored in determining the scope of fees necessary to reimburse a municipality for its expenses. Thus, in Transportation Alternatives, Inc. v. City of New York, the Second Circuit invalidated an ordinance that directed city officials to consider a range of factors in imposing fees on event organizers, including "whether the applicant will impose an admission charge," "whether the event is a charitable event," "whether the event is held for the purpose of raising funds," "the amount and nature of advertising, including whether the event has title sponsorship," and "such other information as the [Parks] Commissioner shall deem relevant." 340 F.3d 72, 75 (2d Cir. 2003).

However, when the police make decisions concerning the resources necessary to maintain order on city streets, they necessarily must exercise some discretion. As such, in Sullivan v. City of Augusta, the First Circuit upheld an ordinance that imposed fees on parade organizers to cover "the costs of traffic control per city collective bargaining agreement and clean up costs, as estimated by the Police Department." 511 F.3d at 22. The ordinance did not provide further guidance to the police, but the First Circuit explained that there was value in letting the police exercise their "Experienced, professional judgment" in determining the resources necessary for traffic control, since the court found it "hard to see any purely mechanical means for determining how many officers would be needed to direct traffic at the various intersections of differing routes and neighborhoods." Id. at 36. Indeed, the Supreme Court has recognized that permit schemes must have some play in them, since overly rigid standards and requirements could actually suppress speech in some circumstances. See Thomas, 534 U.S. at 325, 122 S.Ct. 775. In this context, for example, if the SAPD's discretion were too limited, it could lead to tailoring concerns, as rigid standards might result in unnecessary traffic control resources being devoted to particular processions, in turn leading to the imposition of excessive fees.

Viewed in the context of these cases, the 2008 ordinance is not constitutionally infirm. Like the ordinance in Sullivan, the 2008 ordinance and Procedure 214 grant the SAPD discretion to determine the resources necessary for cleanup and traffic control. The 2008 ordinance actually cabins police discretion more than the ordinance upheld in Sullivan. On the other hand, unlike the ordinance struck down in Forsyth County, the 2008 ordinance does not allow fees to diverge from the amount needed to reimburse San Antonio for necessary traffic control and cleanup services. Instead, the 2008 ordinance provides that "[e]ach permit holder is responsible for" traffic control and cleanup expenses, with the SAPD only granted limited discretion to determine what resources should be allocated for particular events. Ch. 19, art. XVII, § 19-636(b) (emphasis added). Also, unlike the ordinance invalidated in Transportation Alternatives, all the factors listed in the 2008 ordinance and Procedure 214 relate to determining the personnel and equipment necessary to control traffic at processions. While the SAPD may at times need to consider certain traffic control factors beyond those explicitly listed, it is clear that the SAPD is limited to assessing traffic control fees based on its calculation of "the number of peace officers and traffic control devices reasonably necessary to control traffic in the area of the requested procession." Id. § 19-636(c).

With two exceptions. First, as already explained, the City grants a $3,000 subsidy to all " First Amendment" processions. See Ch. 19, art. XVII, § 19-636(c). As noted above, the plaintiffs brought vagueness and overbreadth challenges against this provision in the district court, but chose not to pursue them on appeal. Second, there could also be some variance is when extra personnel or barricades would be necessary to maintain order at processions whose participants are expressing controversial messages. Consistent with Forsyth County, the 2008 ordinance provides that "[a]ny additional costs for police personnel deemed necessary to provide security due to the nature of the event will not be assessed to the permit holder." Ch. 19, art. XVII, § 19-636(c). As explained above, in 2008, the City Council amended the new procession ordinance to ensure that the SAPD does not assess fees to recoup the expense of protecting speakers whose views are unpopular. See Forsyth County, 505 U.S. at 134-35, 112 S.Ct. 2395 (holding that "[s]peech cannot be financially burdened . . . because it might offend a hostile mob"). The plaintiffs assert that this language does not do enough to prevent the SAPD from passing on security-related expenses to procession organizers. We find it sufficient, at least on the basis of the limited record before us on this facial challenge, with no evidence concerning its application to actual processions.

In short, the Constitution does not demand that policing decisions be made exclusively by reference to the equivalent of actuary tables and abacuses, simply because the cost of police activities are passed on to individuals engaging in expression protected under the First Amendment. However, we stress the limited record before us in this case. We lack any evidence concerning the enforcement of the standards in the 2008 ordinance and Procedure 214, as they came into effect after the International Women's Day March took place. If in the future we were presented with evidence that the SAPD used its discretion under the 2008 ordinance and Procedure 214 to charge drastically different fees for similar processions, we might reach a different conclusion. Cf. Forsyth County, 505 U.S. at 132, 112 S.Ct. 2395 (considering enforcement history of ordinance in determining whether it vested officials with excessive discretion).

The plaintiffs have pointed to some evidence showing that under the 1988 ordinance, the SAPD did at times assess considerably different fees for similar events. In particular, the plaintiffs note that in 2006, the SAPD produced fee estimates of $9,091 and $3,305 for apparently similar permit applications. This evidence, however, does not assist us in determining whether the 2008 ordinance and Procedure 214 provide sufficient direction to the SAPD in resource allocation and fee assessment. The 1988 ordinance did not contain standards guiding the discretion of the SAPD in allocating traffic control resources. It also did not prohibit the assessment of fees on the basis of providing security for marchers with controversial messages. See Ordinance 101404; Ordinance 86615; Ordinance 66526.

VI.

We now address whether San Antonio's 2008 ordinance is a permissible regulation of the time, place, and manner of speech. We have already concluded that San Antonio's selective subsidization of certain events does not undermine the overall content and viewpoint neutrality of the ordinance. Therefore, we now address whether the ordinance is "narrowly tailored to serve a significant governmental interest" and "leave[s] open ample alternatives for communication." Forsyth County, 505 U.S. at 130, 112 S.Ct. 2395.

A.

The plaintiffs assert that San Antonio's selective fee waivers deprive the 2008 ordinance of the narrow tailoring necessary to sustain its constitutionality. It is undisputed that San Antonio has a significant interest in recouping the expenses it incurs from the processions held on its streets. See Thomas, 534 U.S. at 322, 122 S.Ct. 775 (suggesting that municipalities may permissibly impose permit requirements designed "to assure financial accountability for damage caused by [an] event"); Cox, 312 U.S. at 577, 61 S.Ct. 762 (approving of license fee imposed on parade organizers to reimburse city for expenses caused by parade). Still, if in achieving this interest, "`a substantial portion of [the ordinance's] burden on speech does not serve to advance'" this goal, "then the ordinance is not narrowly tailored." Knowles, 462 F.3d at 434 (quoting Ward, 491 U.S. at 799, 109 S.Ct. 2746). We find that San Antonio's fee exemptions for certain processions do not fatally undermine the tailoring of the 2008 ordinance. San Antonio may permissibly recoup some of its traffic control expenses, while simultaneously subsidizing certain events.

In addition to this fee waiver argument, the plaintiffs assert in their briefing that San Antonio has not otherwise met its burden of demonstrating narrowly tailoring, suggesting that there may be other reasons why the 2008 ordinance is not narrowly tailored. They provide no support for this claim. While San Antonio does bear the burden of showing narrow tailoring, see Hays County Guardian, 969 F.2d at 118, this does not relieve the plaintiffs of their obligation as appellants to raise arguments explaining why the district court's grant of summary judgment to San Antonio was erroneous. See Fed.R.App.P. 28(a)(9)(A) ("The appellant's brief must contain . . . [an] argument, which must contain . . . appellant's contentions and the reasons for them, with citations to the authorities and parts of the record on which the appellant relies."). Since the plaintiffs have not adequately briefed any narrow tailoring issues other than its argument concerning San Antonio's fee waivers, these other possible issues are waived. See, e.g., Procter Gamble Co. v. Amway Corp., 376 F.3d 496, 499 n. 1 (5th Cir. 2004) ("Failure adequately to brief an issue on appeal constitutes waiver of that argument."). Therefore, we do not address whether the 2008 ordinance is narrowly tailored in the sense that it prevents the SAPD from charging excessive fees for the provision of unnecessary traffic control and cleanup resources.

In a number of cases, we have held that exemptions can render unconstitutional a regulation of speech that would otherwise be permissible. As noted above, in Knowles v. City of Waco, we recently struck down a city's parade ordinance that granted blanket permit exemptions to government agencies, funeral processions, and groups of students under the supervision of school authorities. 462 F.3d at 436. In reaching this result, we relied on our earlier decision in Beckerman v. City of Tupelo, where we struck down an ordinance with similar exemptions, reasoning that "`[b]ecause the City [was] so willing to disregard the traffic problems' that could be caused by" the exempted groups, we "could not `accept the contention that traffic control [was] a substantial interest' that justified [the City's] parade permitting scheme." Id. at 436-37 (quoting 664 F.2d 502, 513 (5th Cir. 1981)). By analogy, San Antonio's fee waivers could be viewed as equally unacceptable, in that they undermine San Antonio's contention that recouping its traffic control expenses is so important that it must assess fees.

Relatedly, the plaintiffs complain that San Antonio's fee exemptions are impermissible because their effect is that the City only recovers a fraction of its traffic control expenses. The Supreme Court has held that fees on speech must have some relationship to solving the problems that supposedly justify their imposition. Thus, in Cox v. New Hampshire, the Supreme Court approved of a fee that reimbursed a city for the expenses caused by a parade, 312 U.S. at 577, 61 S.Ct. 762, while in Murdoch v. Pennsylvania, the Court struck down a flat fee imposed on door-to-door solicitors, as it was not "calculated to defray the expense of protecting those on the streets and at home against the abuses of solicitors." 319 U.S. 105, 116, 63 S.Ct. 870, 87 L.Ed. 1292 (1943); see also Fernandes v. Limmer, 663 F.2d 619, 632-33 (5th Cir. 1981) (striking down flat $6 fee imposed on permit applicants, where defendant had not "demonstrate[d] a link between the fee and the costs of the licensing process").

Consistent with this precedent, in Horton v. City of Houston, we found that a public access television station's fee imposed on non-local broadcasters might not be narrowly tailored. Specifically, we expressed concern that there was a "lack of correlation between the amount charged to non-locally produced programs and [the station's] stated justification for imposing [its] fee." 179 F.3d 188, 195 (5th Cir. 1999). The station charged a $75 to $100 fee on non-local broadcasters and used this revenue to encourage local broadcasting by "train[ing] local producers, purchasing] production equipment, and fund[ing its] general operations." Id. We found that there was no evidence of whether the fee actually helped cover the cost of the station's operations and suggested that the fee should be struck down if it failed "to make any realistic dent in the costs borne by cable subscribers for the production facilities." Id. at 196. Thus, if San Antonio's imposition of fees is ineffective at recouping the City's traffic control expenses, these fees could be constitutionally suspect.

Initially, we note again the limited evidence before us. Although we know that San Antonio waives fees for a limited number of events, we lack evidence of how the SAPD has assessed fees under the standards in the 2008 ordinance and Procedure 214. Therefore, we do not know the exact percentage of San Antonio's traffic control expenses that it recovers under the 2008 ordinance. Nevertheless, there is no doubt that the City incurs considerable expense in supporting its exempted events, at least some of which are large processions that require extensive traffic control resources. For example, the cost of traffic control personnel for the 2008 Martin Luther King March appears to have been over $40,000, while expenses for certain Fiesta-related events in 2008 rose as high as $170,000. Another relevant consideration is that the City waives the first $3,000 of traffic control personnel expenses for every " First Amendment" procession, see Ch. 19, art. XVII, § 19-636(c), further reducing the amount by which its traffic control fees actually cover the expenses borne by the City. Thus, even on the limited record before us, it is clear that there is not a perfect fit between the fees paid by procession organizers and the expenses incurred by the City.

Despite this less than perfect fit, we do not believe the fee exemptions and $3,000 credit for " First Amendment" processions fatally undermines the City's assessment of traffic control fees. San Antonio need not recoup all of its traffic control expenses for its fees to be narrowly tailored. Notably, in Horton, we suggested that the defendant public access station only needed to show that its fees for non-local broadcasters made a "realistic dent" in defraying its operating costs. 179 F.3d at 196. In this case, San Antonio makes a "realistic dent" in its budget by protecting itself from having to bear unexpectedly high traffic control expenses for all the various marches and parades that may be held throughout a year. In effect, San Antonio is insuring its annual budget against the unexpected, and we conclude this is permissible.

Similarly, San Antonio's selective subsidization of certain processions also does not render its fees poorly tailored. San Antonio has imposed a generally applicable fee on procession organizers, but has also decided to provide financial support to particular events in the form of fee waivers. As already explained, these waivers are the equivalent of paying funds "out of the City treasury." See Sullivan, 406 F.Supp.2d at 113. In our view, the City Council's decision to appropriate funds to particular uses cannot undermine the tailoring of San Antonio's overall fee scheme. We find that Knowles, where we struck down a parade ordinance with a limited number of exemptions, 462 F.3d at 436-37, is inapposite in this context, given our conclusion that San Antonio may permissibly subsidize activities in public fora.

Finally, this is not a case like Murdock, where solicitors had to pay fees that bore no relation to the burdens their activity imposed. 319 U.S. at 116, 63 S.Ct. 870. Instead, in this case, fees are clearly linked to the expense of "[cleaning up the procession route" and the cost of any "personnel" and "devices" needed for traffic control. See Ch. 19, art. XVII, § 19-636(b). Given these considerations, we find that San Antonio's fee exemptions do not undermine the tailoring of the 2008 ordinance.

B.

The plaintiffs' final argument is that the alternatives for expression in San Antonio that are unburdened by fees are inadequate. "While the First Amendment does not guarantee the right to employ every conceivable method of communication at all times and in all places, a restriction on expressive activity may be invalid if the remaining modes of communication are inadequate." Members of City Council of Los Angeles v. Taxpayers for Vincent, 466 U.S. 789, 812, 104 S.Ct. 2118, 80 L.Ed.2d 772 (1984). We find that the 2008 ordinance provides the plaintiffs with sufficient alternatives for expression unburdened by fees. There are procession routes in San Antonio where large groups can march without paying traffic control fees. Also, although the procession ordinance may limit the plaintiffs' ability to hold marches along certain expensive routes, it does not limit other methods of expression along these routes.

The plaintiffs argue that San Antonio lacks alternative fora for unburdened expression because its sidewalks and parks are effectively not available for large processions. A number of our sister circuits have held that when municipalities impose fees on groups organizing street processions, sidewalks and parks provide sufficient alternative venues for expression, at least when groups may access them for free. See Sullivan, 511 F.3d at 43; Stonewall, 931 F.2d at 1134. However, the plaintiffs assert that in San Antonio, these venues would not be free for large events like the International Women's Day March. The plaintiffs have also presented evidence demonstrating that many San Antonio sidewalks are not accessible for disabled individuals.

As noted above, the procession ordinance exempts sidewalk marches and stationary assemblies from its reach. Ch. 19, art. XVII, § 19-632. However, if a sidewalk march "impede[s] the normal flow or regulation of pedestrian or vehicular traffic," individuals must obtain a procession permit and pay attendant fees. Id. Also, San Antonio imposes "usage" and "[d]amage/cleanup" fees for "special events" held "within city parks." See San Antonio, Tex., Code ch. 22, art. I, § 22-17(b) (2010). For nonprofit organizations, these fees could range from $750 to $1,800, depending on the size of the event. Id. § 22-17(b)(3), (c).

Despite these problems concerning parks and sidewalks, we find that the fees imposed under the 2008 ordinance do not deprive large groups of adequate alternatives for expression. The 2008 ordinance waives the first $3,000 in traffic control fees for all " First Amendment" processions, see Ch. 19, art. XVII, § 19-636(c), and the plaintiffs do not dispute the City's contention that there are procession routes that could be used for free. Thus, large groups need not hold marches on sidewalks or rallies in parks, where their disabled members may not be able to participate.

We note that the $3,000 subsidy does not cover cleanup expenses. However, we find that the imposition of cleanup fees does not strip these otherwise free procession routes of their status as available alternatives for unburdened expression. While procession organizers cannot avoid disrupting traffic, they should be able to conduct a procession in such a way as to avoid the imposition of cleanup fees. If this is not the case for certain groups, we can review this in a future as-applied challenge.

It may be that the free procession routes are not the plaintiffs' preferred routes and that fewer individuals would be exposed to the plaintiffs' messages along these routes. However, an alternative venue for speech may still be constitutionally adequate, even when there is "a reduction in the potential audience" for speech in the alternative venue. Sullivan, 511 F.3d at 44. Furthermore, although courts have at times struck down ordinances "that push protestors far away from their intended audience," see Citizens for Peace in Space v. City of Colorado Springs, 477 F.3d 1212, 1225 (10th Cir. 2007), on this facial challenge, the plaintiffs have not claimed a need to access any particular audience or procession route in San Antonio.

We also note that even if groups could not hold a large procession along their intended route, the 2008 ordinance does not burden other forms of expression along that route. In Members of City Council of Los Angeles v. Taxpayers for Vincent, the Supreme Court upheld a ban on posting signage on public property, explaining that the challenged ordinance did "not affect any individual's freedom to exercise the right to speak and to distribute literature in the same place where the posting of signs on public property is prohibited." 466 U.S. at 812, 104 S.Ct. 2118; see also Kovacs v. Cooper, 336 U.S. 77, 89, 69 S.Ct. 448, 93 L.Ed. 513 (1949) (plurality opinion) (upholding ban on use of sound trucks on public streets since ordinance did not burden other means of expression in same area). Similarly, in this case, the 2008 ordinance assesses no fees on small groups picketing unobtrusively, handing out leaflets, or engaging passersby in conversation. Given these considerations, we conclude that the 2008 ordinance provides ample alternatives for unburdened expression, even for groups that cannot afford the expense of traffic control fees along certain routes.

VII.

We therefore reject the plaintiffs' facial challenges to the 2008 ordinance. If future problems arise concerning its implementation, the plaintiffs are of course free to bring a new as-applied challenge to the ordinance. On the basis of the record before us, however, we must AFFIRM the district court's grant of summary judgment in favor of San Antonio.